Explain ‘Imperialism’ write a note on the stages of imperialism.

According to Maritz Julius Bonn, “Imperialism” is a policy which aims at creating,  ‘organizing and maintaining an empire; that is a state of vast size composed of various more or less distinct national unit s and subject to a single centralized will”  Charles a beard wrote : “Imperialism is…..employment of the engines of government and diplomacy to  acquire territories, protectorates, and on spheres of influence occupied usually by other races or peoples, and to promote industrial, trade, and investment opportunities …..”A clear yet crisp definition was given by p.t. moon. He wrote, “Imperialism ….means domination of non- European native races by totally dissimilar European nations. “Thus moon clearly indicates domination of colored peoples of Asia and Africa by the Europeans who considered themselves superior and their colonial administration as burden on the white man. Though Beard excludes all economic motivations, the history of imperialism definitely points to economic exploitation as a primary drive in expansion of the empire by western countries. History reveals that the world has gone through many stages of development. It is known that the history of humankind is related to the development of society and social structures. Capitalism generally developed out of feudalism, and was Responsible for colonialisation and imperialism, Feudalism prevailed before the 16^th- 17^th century. In Europe, feudalism was generally associated with medieval states based on aristocracies (run by kings and nobles) who controlled the economic and political power of the state. The church too had an important role in the functioning of the feudal state. Feudalism as a system began to decay in different parts of Europe, beginning from England in the thirteenth century. The industrial revolution, the growth of towns, inter-feudal wars etc. led to this decline , social life in Europe thus began to change, this also involved a change from the feudal type economic organization to a different one where the control was no longer with the land owning aristocracies. Independent groups of merchants and traders began dominating the economy. This meant, thus, the growth of new classes which formed the bases for mercantile capitalism. The letter was a transition from feudalism to capitalism to capitalism, which was prevalent between the 16^th and 19^th centuries. The kind of transformation made by each nation out of feudalism differed. For example in England capitalism grew faster than in any other European nations. France followed this transition and later Germany, Russia and others did the same. Thus each transition was a unique experience. Industrialization in Europe led the capitalists to look for raw materials and markets outside Europe. This search fueled imperial penetrations into Asia and Africa. Capitalism can be defined as a system in which goods and services are produced for exchange in the market so that profit is made. The form of capital in the capitalist system is deferent from that of the feudal system where merchant capital was dominant. Under capitalism productive capital dominates, that is capital invested in labor power. Labor power is what the worker has to sell in exchange for money in order to survive. This labor power is then organized in the production process to produce new commodities for making more profit. Thus the capital of the merchants and financiers circulated and are invested for commodity production. The function of this merchant finance, Capital is determined and based on the need of productive capital. Labor power thus becomes like a commodity which can be bought and sold according to market prices.The growth of capitalism had an important effect on the social and political life of people and social systems. Just it had on their economic life. Capitalism brought about the formation of two large classes- the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class. In addition to these there also give rise to new political systems wherein besides landed aristocracies, other classes’ also shared state power as in England. Similarly it led to the overthrow of the French landed aristocracy and brought into being the French republic. Thus with capitalism began as era of private enterprises in the economic sphere and popular participation in the exercise of state power in the political sphere.

Write an essay on the military technology of medieval India.

The military technology of medieval India was marked by remarkable progress. Conventional weapons like Bow-arrow, sword etc were accompanied by different kind of firearms for the first time. The industrial technology during the sixteenth and the seventeenth century saw remarkable achievements in the form of artillery. The manufacture of cannon was then the real heavy industry, on the handgun were lavished all the fruits of the increasing mechanical sophistication attained during the period. Modern artillery was mainly brought to India, on the one hand by Babur, who had received it from Persia and on the other by the Portuguese early in the sixteenth century. Evidence has however, now been adduced of the presence of cannon during the later half of the fifteenth century. The specimens of handguns from the mughal period are hand enough in case of studying different methods of manufacture of firearms in India. In case of a handgun the most significant portion is the propelling mechanism. In the earliest guns the change was fired by applying a ‘match’ or burning rope or cord to the priming pan which communicated through the touch hole with barrel into which gun powder had been previously rammed. During the 15^th century and the 16^th century the match lock developed in Europe by first providing for a pivoted lever. With the help of this lever the match could be hold and a spring controlled the lever and then converting it into an arm. But Indian evidences are little in this context and the development of the match lock in India cannot be traced back. In Abul Fazl’s writing there are references to match locks being manufactured by Akbar’s arsenal but that it was also turning out a lock in which the match was done away with. The practical knowledge of the world emperor helped in evolving a gun which can be fired without the use of the match but with just a slight movement of the masha. At the same time the pellet is also discharged. Such a gun could either have a decider of the seventeenth century saw the appearance  of the flint lock in Europe, where it gradually, but not completely supplanted the match lock during the later half of the century. Its first appearance in India is difficult to date, but in 1623 it excited the great curiosity of the zamorin of Calicut, for their guns have only matches. The subsequent development of the flint lock in India again is not easy to trace. It would appear that Indian guns began to be equipped with flint lock during the later half of the seventeenth century. But the basis for this view is assumption and there is very little evidence to substantiate it. Bernier says that Indian sometimes imitated perfectly articles of European manufacture. He also says that “among other things, the Indians make excellent muskets, and fowling pieces. The barrel of the gun is a great problem for the blacksmith as it had to with stand the explosion inside it. Great accuracy was needed with regard to its bore and alignment.

In the manufacture of cannon, two trends were noticeable in the mughal period. The first was to make very large pieces. This was possible as long as they were cast of bronze. The method of casting such cannon pieces was apparently similar to the one employed by the ottoman Turks during the middle of the fifteenth century, A method which lasted in Europe until about 1750.Babur’s gun founders cast cannon by precisely the same means. Whether the process of bronze casting was further improvised in India or the alloy used was better, it would appear that by the end of the sixteenth century, the heaviest guns in the world were being cast in India. The climax being reached with the famous Malik Maidan cast in bronze at diameter at the muzzle, 5’5” and of the bore, 2’4 and half Inc which threw stone balls of 10 maunds.

What do you understand by the term ‘de- industrialization ’? What was its Impact on the Indian Economy?

Commentators often talk of the long decline of industry in the British economy. In simple terms this is what we mean by de-industrialization - a fall in the contribution made by the manufacturing sector to national output, employment and income. We can consider manufacturing as a whole, or focus on individual industries such as steel and clothing and textiles

De-industrialization is a long-term process of structural change in an economy – leading to a change in the composition of national output, and important alterations to the structure of our labour market.

There is a number of different ways of measuring the extent to which our manufacturing sector is experiencing de-industrialization:

Its impact on the Indian Economy

The economic condition of India in the 19th century started becoming worse due to several polices of the British government. The Indian manufacturing sector was sometimes sharply disrupted sue to the import of machine made foreign goods. While analyzing the economic impact of British rule and consequent poverty, Indian nationalists has quite convincingly argued that British rule has de-industrialized India. However, recent researches in modern economic history of India after independence has challenged this widely accepted hypothesis on many grounds. To reach at final analysis it is imperative to go through all major views of the scholars and sources of information of different parts of 19th century India.

Drain of wealth the systematic policy of ferrying the economic resources of India to Britain. The officials of the British I government were paid out of the Indian exchequer money went out of India. There was a heavy tax t on the Indian people because large sums had to b annually as interest on loans contracted by the Gove~ of India. It was first time in India’s history that the balance of trade t unfavorable towards India.

De-industrialization The British caused 1 Duos harm to the traditional handicraft industry decayed beyond recovery. Heavy customs dutiE imposed on Indian goods. The

British officials! Preference for European goods. This provided an. to the demand for

European goods and contribute decline of Indian handicrafts. The availability of n made goods in abundance at a comparatively low H greatly contributed to the decline of Indian handicri failure of the British Government to offer any protE indigenous industry also contributed to the de Indian handicrafts because they could not compt machine-made goods produced in bulk, and Consequently cheaper. With the subjugation of Indian princely 51 patronage to the handicraft industry ceased to exist.

Ruralisation Indian economy tended to more and more agricultural with the disintegration traditional industries. The increase in the number 01 in agriculture. Did not mean increase in agricultural, but impoverishment of the rural masses; then industrial alternative.

This accounted for the famines and increasing poverty in the 19th and quarter of the 20^th century. India merely became of raw material for industrial Britain.

Yellow Journalism.

The emergence e of modern mass media has generated a great enthusiasm among intellectuals and general people as well, in the earlier of this century. The Mass circulated news papers appear in all the countries as educators, jurists as ideal mentor to the public. The basic function of mass media to influence the public opinion has started getting momentum. But more concentration on entertainment and circulation of the news papers bring a diversion from ethical practice in this noble field of journalism. It has caused great anxiety about Media’s alleged baneful influence on individual’s moral outlook and behavior. Not only the newspaper, but all the media including electronic media are indulging such practice of neglecting any ethical value. Yellow journalism, at its worst, is the new journalism without any objective. Trumpeting the concern for the people the media practitioners of both print and electronic media infiltrate the yellow journalism to affect common people using several news channels. Yellow journalism is a kind of sensational, gaudy and irresistible devil in journalism. It turns the high drama of life into a cheap melodrama twisting the information in their best suited way to make a howling newstay. Yellow journalism offers a palliative of sin, sex and violence to the readers.

The origin of the term ‘Yellow Journalism’ dates back to the later half of the 19^th century (1894). When an U.S Publisher, Joseph Politzer paper, introduces comic strip entitled ‘Shanty Town’ with a cartoon character of a child with a yellow dress which becomes known as the yellow kid. The man who more than anyone else brought about the era of yellow journalism is William Randolph Hearst. As a very controversial journalist Hearst was well known for his practical jokes. He started such a stylist joke strip ‘yellow kid’ in his paper New York Journal.’ yellow kid’ made a breezy headway with sensational journalism. as a symbol the term yellow journalism is coined from this column. Yellow kid with end of previous century the trend of sensationalism gets wide popularity and the newspapers from Europe adopt the technique of news presentation from the United States.

Yellow journalism replaces serious journalism in many cases irrespective of countries, media or situation. Especially the tabloid newspapers are totally banking on such sensationalism. They are quickly read and forgotten. Yellow journalism born in the atmosphere of society after rapid industrialization and cultural degradation. This creates unnecessary tension and abnormal state of mind and brings anarchy among individuals and society.

What do you understand by under-development? Discuss any one society that falls within your identification of under-development.

The world we live in is bipolar in nature. This characteristic can be seen not only in relation to geographical entity but also in relation to our social pattern, on one hand we can see affluent and well to do class and on the other hand we can see deprived and discriminated class. In our world eight hundred and eighty million are malnourished and millions go without schooling. On the other hand, three richest people in the world have assets that would surpass the sum total of the GDP’S of 48 least developed countries. People who are deprived are excluded from full participation in the society in which the live, lack of options, entitlement to resources and lack of social capital are the main reasons behind it. Economic development is a process by which an underdeveloped society can be economically competitive. It is the way in which a traditional society is transformed into a modern, high technology, high income economy. Such a developed economy uses capital, skilled labour and scientific knowledge to produce wide variety of products for the market. Capital goods and human capital plays an important role in such a society. The World Bank has put forward the following development goals: a) Reduction of poverty b)Low mortality rates c) Universal primary education d)Access to reproductive health services e) Gender equality. There are a number of underdeveloped countries which are unable to attain these development goals due to lack of resources. They share wide spread and chronic absolute poverty, high and rising burden of unemployment and underemployment, growing disparities in income distribution, low and stagnant agricultural productivity sizeable gap between urban and rural levels of living. Underdeveloped countries are also suffering from lack of education, health and housing facilities dependence on foreign and often in appropriate technologies and more or less stagnant occupational structure. In many respects underdeveloped countries are common. At the same time there are significant differences also. These differences can be seen in respect of the size of the country, their historical evolution, their natural and human resources and the difference in structure regarding industry, institutions etc. one of the most important problem of an under developed country is the presence of a large section of low income group. Ghana and India with per capita income below $785 are low income countries; china between ($785-3125) is a lower middle income country. Brazil is a country where per capita is between ($3125-9655). It falls in the upper middle income category. Per capita income is an evaluation of average income based on market evaluations. The proper assessment of a country’s economy can be made on the basis of some extra dimensions. They are life expectancy, health facilities, condition of employment, distributing of assets and the social structure. The under developed countries of different continents have certain common features.  These are low standards of living, low level of productivity, high rate of population growth, Greater importance on agricultural production and primary product exports. Dominance and vulnerability in international relations, a low standard of living reflects through in adequate housing, poor health, limited education, high infant mortality. The same can be seen in case of India and Ghana, Lack of distribution of wealth in an even manner. As a result chronic poverty’s can be seen. Slow GDP growth rates and higher under-5 mortality can be seen. Besides these countries have high population pressures on their resources. This is due to high birth rates and maternal fertility rates. Some countries like china and Brazil have succeeded to a large extent in controlling population growth. Under utilization of labour is also an important feature of the underdeveloped. Disguised unemployment has low productivity level. In an underdeveloped economy people is large or primarily dependent on agricultural production. Due to primitive techniques, poor organization, lack of capital etc the output is low. Such underdeveloped economies are not blessed with wide scale industrialization and these resources are also limited. Under developed countries Like India and Ghana have to depend on rich countries or advanced nations in terms of technology, foreign aid and private capital transfers.

Write a detail note on commercial capitalization.

The international encyclopaedia of social sciences refers to capitalism as the economic and political system that in its industrial or full form first developed in England in the late 18^th century.

Dictionary of social sciences explained capitalism as denoting an economic system in which the greater proportion of economic life, particularly ownership of and investment in production goods, is carried on under private(i.c, non-governmental) auspices through the process of economic competition with an avowed incentive of profit.

Marxist historians have identified a series of stages in the evolution of capitalism---for examples, merchant or commercial capitalism, agrarian capitalism, industrial capitalism and state capitalism, and much of the debate on origin and progress Has hinged on differing views of the significance, timing and characteristics of each stage. The first stage, i.e. mercantile or commercial capitalization provided the initial thrust and impetus for capitalization in the sense that merchants started becoming entrepreneurs to cater to market demands by employing wage labourers as well as by exploiting the existing craft guilds. Commercial capitalization metamorphosed into industrial capitalisms, which again, according to Marxist economist, gave way to socialism, because industrial capitalism was inseparably connected with problems of the working class, this invariably gave rise to different currents of socialist thoughts.

 Commercial capitalism and agrarian capitalism were, therefore, two forms of capitalism that overlapped with each other, the difference between them being that one emerged out of commercial surplus while the other out of agricultural surplus. Agrarian capitalism sometimes metamorphosed fully into commercial capitalism i.e. invested the entire surplus accumulated from agriculture into commerce and sometimes transformed directly into industrial capitalism by investing in industrial development alone.

In all this stages of capitalism, identified by the Marxist historians, therefore, the first stage was merchant capitalism or commercial capitalism. Now, what is it? Precisely, capital accumulation out of the profits of merchants to be invested in various economic activities was what is called commercial capitalism. It took different forms in different stages.

In middle age, however, the form assumed by commercial capitalism was entirely different. It was during this time that it developed in the true sense. In England, and even more emphatically in Holland, the birth of capitalism can be dated from the late 16^th and early 17^th centuries. The type of capitalism t5hat was growing up in Europe in the Middle Ages and was well established by 1500 was predominantly of this sort. Here lay the distinction between commercial capitalism, of the ancient and middle ages.                                               

    It can therefore be said that a limited form of ‘early’ or commercial capitalism, already known in the ancient world, had developed in Italy as early as the thirteenth century and later in the Low Countries. This commercial form developed in England in the 16^th century and began to change into industrial capitalism while elements of feudalism and the guild system still existed. In short, therefore, the early stage of capitalism, primarily founded upon commerce is called commercial capitalization, which in course of time metamorphosed into industrial capitalism. Capitalism therefore did exist in ancient world in the form of commerce as well as guild system and merchant dominated putting out system in the medieval world.

Swaraj Party.

Swaraj (Vithalbhai Patel and others, declared that the Non-cooperation Movement had been a failure and, with the detention of Gandhi, had lost its momentum. They proposed an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread mass civil disobedience

Vithalbhai Patel and others, declared that the Non-cooperation Movement had been a failure and, with the detention of Gandhi, had lost its momentum. They proposed an alternative programme of diverting the movement from widespread mass civil disobedience programme to a restricted one which would encourage Congress members to enter the Legislative Councils established under the Montford Reforms of 1919 and to use moral pressure to compel authority concede the popular demand for self-government. Remarkable seats in 1924-elections were achieved by the members but their triumph had been short-lived.

The Nehru Report (1928)

The Nehru Report was an eye-opening episode for the Muslims of India as it totally bypassed them and the later could well imagine their future in case of the approval of these recommendations. The report denied the separate electorate for the Muslims which the Congress had agreed with earlier. It ignored even the Delhi Proposals while formulating the report. Nehru showed two Muslims participating in the Report (to justify the Muslim presence); one was Syed Ali Imam who could attend only one meeting out of four because of his illness while Shoaib Qureshi, the other member could not approve the Congress views. Therefore, Nehru Report stayed only a Hindu report ignoring other parties especially the Muslim League, the biggest Muslim entity. Consequently, the Muslim leaders rejected the Report.

“Any sensible person cannot Muslims will accept these insulting conditions, said Sir Agha Khan about the Nehru Report. Jinnah responded to the Nehru Report by saying that “From now the paths of Hindus and Muslims are separate.”

Jinnah suggested four amendments in the Report:

“There should be no less than one/third representation in the Central Legislature.

In event of the adult suffrage not being established, Punjab and Bengal should have seats reserved on population basis for the Musalmans.

The form of the constitution should be federal with residuary powers vested in the provinces. This question is by far the most important from the constitutional point of view.

With regard to the separation of Sindh and NWFP, we cannot wait until the Nehru Report is established…The Musalmans feel that it is shelving the issue and postponing their insistent demand till doomsday and they cannot agree to it.”